Arab World Project Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Arab World Project Analysis - Research Paper Example Hypothesis: This project is based on the hypothesis that intervention is required to check the trend of obesity in Arab countries and physical exercise is the best tool to reduce its prevalence. The hypothesis is structured on the assumption that the new project would be beneficial to the people in countries like Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. Besides, due to the high demand expected for such a service, the project will be highly feasible. Background Information – Literature Review: The project is based on a health service that envisages physical fitness and training centers in Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. Physical exercise and fitness is very crucial in avoiding various healthcare issues including obesity. Diabetes, Obesity, and CHD are very common amongst the population this peninsula (Al-Nuaim, 1997). Physical activity of the people has significantly been reduced with the availability of housemaids, television, private cars and various sophisticated home appliances (Alwan 1993). Fast foods contain large amounts of fats such as in items like fried chicken, hamburgers, french-fries etc and these have become very popular in Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon (Amine and Al-Awadi 1990). Lack of exercise also contributes to the prevalence of obesity and such healthcare problems. The rapid economic growth has produced considerable alterations in socioeconomic lifestyle and status. The sedentary lifestyle ultimately results in larger accumulation of body fat in the individuals. (C. J. Caspersen, K. E. Powell, and G, 1985). Jordan is one of the newest countries in the Middle East with a total of 6million inhabitants. Population of the Adolescents (10-24 years) represents 1/3rd of the Jordanian population or just above 1.5 million persons. (Department of Statistics [Jordan]. 2009Amman, Jordan) According to the Behavioral Risk Factor Survey for Jordan, almost 50% of Jordanian adults, reportedly, are not in the habit of engaging in physical activities and 81% of them are suppo sed to have a low intake level of fruits and vegetables (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2004). In another survey that was conducted in Jordan, 14.3% of Jordanian adolescents people aged 13-15 years were found to be at the top in the list of becoming overweight, and also 83% of them participated in inadequate physical activities, and only 14.3% of them were reported to be physically energetic (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2007). These challenges also impact the Jordanian lifestyle and health and also increase the risk of various diseases. Syria also confronts various healthcare issues in the present scenario. â€Å"As the quasi- independent Syrian government took an increasing amount of decision-making power from the French authorities, the notions of connections between strong male bodies and a strong nation that had percolated throughout the decade became institutionalized as part of government policy† (Dolbee, pg.2). Regular exercise helps to reduc e the risk of developing various kinds of diseases like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, type 2 diabetes as well as certain types of cancer. Besides, such physical activities drastically reduce the risk of heart attacks. It is significant that physical activity be defined prior to examining its status among Syrian children and adolescents (Caspersen C 1985). The capability to relate

Healthcare in the U.S .Health Literacy, public health messaging Essay

Healthcare in the U.S .Health Literacy, public health messaging project in which you have been involved - Essay Example Communication then proves to be vital in disseminating information that help reduce the transmission of the deadly virus while as this information also helps in reducing social stigma. Messages in HIV/AIDS campaigns are; creating awareness to the public on overall effects of HIV/AIDS, telling on the advantages of voluntary testing and counseling. Other messages include  encouraging the use of condoms to help curb the spreading of HIV infections and STD’s. As well as informing the public on the improvements and developments made on treatment of HIV/AIDS. Messages on voluntary testing and counseling and those of encouraging the use of condoms have proved to yield many positive results. These  process yield results  because the use interpersonal means of communication is incorporated. In interpersonal communication, one can relay message to the recipient on an individual basis or targeting of small groups of people. It is deemed to be the most effective way of passing the message since sensitive matters that relate to sexual behaviors  are  highlighted (Ruggiero, 2007). In addition, when relaying the message there is an easier harmonization of the content of the message considering the application of the existing traditions, norms, and values? These words became active because time does not bind the use of interpersonal means of communication. People who need tests or counseling can visit the relevant centers at their convenient time. These messages have proved also to be effective since the number of people who engage in irresponsible sexual acts that may lead to spreading of the virus has greatly reduced. Also according to recent research, the number of people who use condoms as a form of protection has increased (Singhal, 2003). However, messages on creating an overall awareness on the effects of HIV/AIDS and the developments on treatment did not seem to have been affected too many people. It  is

Introduction to macroeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction to macroeconomics - Essay Example A single estimate is then derived and published as the official estimate of GDP. There are two ways to measure the GDP, Real and the Nominal. Every country uses estimates of GDP in real terms as the international standard to measure growth in an economy. It is essential to follow a common standard so as to allow meaningful comparisons between different economies. United Kingdom follows the international conventions and European Union guidelines. This paper examines the GDP as a metric for measuring the health of an economy. It begins by analysing the distinction between the real and the nominal GDP and then goes on to elucidate the voids in using GDP as a sole quantifier of national economy. It then suggests other alternatives and gives the relative merits of using other systems to access the state of national economy of any country. The GDP of every economy tends to rise over a period of time. ... The real GDP is the value of the GDP at constant prices using a given base year value. It excludes any inflation and reflects the changes purely in volume terms; thus giving the actual level of economic activity. It is estimated using chained volume measures. The nominal GDP gives the value of GDP at current prices, prices for which year the GDP is taken. Growth in nominal GDP reflects the effects of inflation, as well as real GDP growth .It reflects change in value terms. For example to calculate the value of 1999 nominal GDP, we will sum the value of all expenditures in 1999, using the prices that prevailed then. The real GDP would be calculated by taking the sum of the values of all the expenditures in 1999, but using the prices that prevailed in the base year (2003). When the economists need to quantify inflation they take the ratio of nominal to real GDP, and take its percentage. This then is called the GDP deflator. A Time Series data of nominal and real GDP. Year GDP at current market prices (millions of pounds) GDP at constant (2003) market prices (millions of pounds) GDP Deflator (index 2003=100) Population (in millions) 1990 558,160 814,956 68.49 57.237 1991 587,080 803,892 73.03 57.439 1992 611,974 805,699 75.96 57.585 1993 642,656 824,085 77.98 57.714 1994 680,978 859,566 79.22 57.862 1995 719,747 884,748 81.35 58.025 1996 765,152 909,102 84.17 58.164 1997 811,194 936,717 86.60 58.314 1998 860,796 968,040 88.92 58.475 1999 906,567 997,295 90.90 58.684 2000 953,227 1,035,295 92.07 58.886 2001 996,987 1,059,648 94.09 59.113 2002 1,048,767 1,081,469 96.98 59.322 2003 1,110,296 1,110,296 100.00 59.554 2004 1,176,527 1,146,523 102.62 59.834 2005 1,224,715 1,167,792 104.87 60.209 Source : http://eh.net/hmit/ukgdp/ Efficacy of GDP as a

Healthcare in the U.S .Health Literacy, public health messaging Essay

Healthcare in the U.S .Health Literacy, public health messaging project in which you have been involved - Essay Example Communication then proves to be vital in disseminating information that help reduce the transmission of the deadly virus while as this information also helps in reducing social stigma. Messages in HIV/AIDS campaigns are; creating awareness to the public on overall effects of HIV/AIDS, telling on the advantages of voluntary testing and counseling. Other messages include  encouraging the use of condoms to help curb the spreading of HIV infections and STD’s. As well as informing the public on the improvements and developments made on treatment of HIV/AIDS. Messages on voluntary testing and counseling and those of encouraging the use of condoms have proved to yield many positive results. These  process yield results  because the use interpersonal means of communication is incorporated. In interpersonal communication, one can relay message to the recipient on an individual basis or targeting of small groups of people. It is deemed to be the most effective way of passing the message since sensitive matters that relate to sexual behaviors  are  highlighted (Ruggiero, 2007). In addition, when relaying the message there is an easier harmonization of the content of the message considering the application of the existing traditions, norms, and values? These words became active because time does not bind the use of interpersonal means of communication. People who need tests or counseling can visit the relevant centers at their convenient time. These messages have proved also to be effective since the number of people who engage in irresponsible sexual acts that may lead to spreading of the virus has greatly reduced. Also according to recent research, the number of people who use condoms as a form of protection has increased (Singhal, 2003). However, messages on creating an overall awareness on the effects of HIV/AIDS and the developments on treatment did not seem to have been affected too many people. It  is

Architecture and Environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Architecture and Environment - Assignment Example The architects scrutinize whether the site is legible for reducing waste hence minimizing the impact on the local ecology and the environment (Brebbia, & Broadbent, 2006). It also relates to the environment because architectural designs try to achieve thermal comfort for the people who will occupy the construction. They design buildings in a way that they control the internal environment factors such as air, temperature and humidity (Kembel et.al 2012: Smith, 2011). Architecture also relates to the environment in terms of study of behavior. They study the beliefs, behavior and attitudes of people regarding the environment (Carmona, & Tiesdell, 2007). They also evaluate the effectiveness of the environment in order to ensure that the process of construction meets the specific objectives (Marquardt, Bueter, & Motzek, 2014). They take a consideration of the human environment and behavioral systems such as planning and policies aimed at controlling the environment. Architecture is also interested in the study of the interrelation between human beings and their man-made and natural environment and the relation towards the field of environmental design (Mallory-Hill, Preiser, & Watson, 2012). However, a contrast exists between the two disciplines. While architecture deals with the management of any action that relays to the design and use of space and land, the environment, by contrast, is concerned with the management of the natural and built enviro nment (Thomas, 2002: Baker, & Steemers, 2000).   Kembel, S. W., Jones, E., Kline, J., Northcutt, D., Stenson, J., Womack, A. M., & Green, J. L. (2012). Architectural design influences the diversity and structure of the built environment microbiome.  The ISME Journal,  6(8), 1469-1479. Marquardt, G., Bueter, K., & Motzek, T. (2014). Impact of the design of the built environment on people with dementia: An evidence-based

Bear Stearns Collapse Timeline Essay Example for Free

Bear Stearns Collapse Timeline Essay This week five years ago, JP Morgan announced it would buy Wall Street rival Bear Stearns in a deal worth $2 a share – this ultimately rose to $10. Here, Financial News looks at the events in the run-up to the fall of the 85-year old independent investment bank. Financial News compiled the timeline from press releases, contemporary media reports and William D Cohan’s account of the collapse of the bank, ‘House of Cards’. May 21, 2007 After months of growing instability in the US sub-prime mortgage market, Bear Stearns chairman Alan ‘Ace’ Greenberg offers reassurances that the firm, heavily exposed to the market, is on top of things. â€Å"The sub-prime (issue) has been blown completely out of proportion,† he says, in comments reported by Dow Jones Newswires. Mid-June 2007 Serious problems become apparent at two Bear Sterns hedge funds with a high exposure to sub-prime mortgages. Investors in the High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage Fund, which managed $600m, are informed that the fund has lost 23% of its value over the year to April, reports The Wall Street Journal. The fund begins a fire-sale to minimise exposures. After the failure of a mooted rescue plan involving support from lenders, a new rescue scheme is announced by Bear Stearns, which offers $3. 2bn for a bailout of a second fund the High Grade Structured Credit Fund. The bank previously had only $45m invested in this fund’s equity, according to William D Cohan in House of Cards’. Bear Stearns later says it is providing $1. 6bn to the fund rather than the original $3. 2bn, citing the sale of assets. A decision is made not to rescue the High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage Fund, according to Cohan. August 3, 2007 Standard Poor’s downgrades the bank’s outlook to negative. The bank says that concerns over its situation are â€Å"unwarranted† as the hedge fund fallout represented â€Å"isolated incidents† and â€Å"by no means a broader indication† of the bank’s performance, according to The Wall Street Journal. August 5, 2007 Bear Stearns president and co-chief operating officer Warren Spector resigns from the bank. Alan Schwartz is confirmed as sole president. Days later, the Associated Press reports that the bank sends letters to clients reassuring them of its financial position. September 10, 2007 British billionaire Joseph Lewis expresses his confidence in the future of the bank by acquiring a 7% stake, becoming one of the largest shareholders. October 5, 2007 Federal prosecutors launch an investigation into the collapse of the Bear Stearns hedge funds. November/December 2007 Chief financial officer Sam Molinaro says that the bank has been â€Å"very conservative and aggressive† in its revaluations, according to Dow Jones Newswires. On December 10, MarketWatch reports that the bank has written down $1. 9bn related to mortgage exposure. January 8, 2008 Chief executive Jimmy Cayne steps down after widespread criticism of his hands-off response to the events of the previous year. He remains as chairman. He is replaced at the top by Alan Schwartz. In the same month, the bank announces the closure of a third fund, the Bear Stearns Asset Backed Securities Fund. Bloomberg reports that this fund has suffered a decline of 39% of its value over a year. February, 2008 Hedge fund Peloton Partners, run by Goldman alumnus Ron Beller, collapses following its exposure to asset-backed securities. March 2008 Carlyle Capital, a hedge fund based in Amsterdam, collapses as concerns over exposures to mortgages begin to multiply, causing a squeeze on lines of funding. By March 5, insurance premiums on Bear Stearns debt have risen from $50,000 per $10m of debt at the beginning of 2005 to $350,000 per $10m debt, according to William D Cohan. It soon reaches $700,000. Monday, March 10, 2008 The company’s stock falls 11% to its lowest level in five years following a Moody’s downgrade of portions of its mortgage bond holdings, writes Cohan. The bank denies rumours that it is in trouble. Investors look for ways to bet on further falls in the bank’s stock. Tuesday, March 11, 2008 ING Groep, the Dutch bank, cancels $500m of short-term funding for Bear Stearns, according to The Wall Street Journal, following an example set by Rabobank. According to a press release, the Federal Reserve announces an unprecedented lending facility in which collateral can be exchanged for funding, but the scheme cannot be accessed until March 27. In another important incident, cited by Cohen in ‘House of Cards’, Goldman Sachs refuses to stand in for Hayman Capital in a trade with Bear Stearns, suggesting hemorrhaging confidence among major financial players. Wednesday. March 12, 2008 Overnight markets for funding begin to dry up, while institutions continue to deny short-term lending to Bear Stearns. Hedge funds and other investors continue in their attempts to extract their money from Bear Stearns, which is rapidly approaching a funding crisis. Thursday, March 13, 2008. As customers continue to withdraw funds, the Securities and Exchange Commission and the New York Federal Reserve begin discussions on the crisis. In a meeting on Thursday night, reported by Cohen, it is discovered that outgoings at the firm can no longer be maintained, with the firm effectively running out of cash during the afternoon. Lawyers are summoned to discuss the options for bankruptcy, while a deal with JP Morgan Chase is sought. After late night negotiations, JP Morgan agrees in conjunction with the Federal Reserve Bank of New York that it will provide secured funding to Bear Sterns for an initial period of up to 28 days. Friday, March 14, 2008 The cobbled-together deal fails to assuage the markets. Investors continue to pull money from the bank over the course of the day. By the evening, it is clear that a solution will have to be devised over the weekend if the bank is to survive. Saturday, March 15- Sunday, March 16, 2008 JP Morgan says it cannot do a deal without support from the Federal Reserve, due to the large number of toxic securities on the books of Bear Stearns. In response, the Fed approves a loan of $30bn saying that it is necessary to avoid â€Å"serious disruptions in the financial markets†. JP Morgan offers just $2 per share for the bank, a large loss for those whose stock was worth $30 on Friday, $60 the week before and over $150 a year before. Bondholders will be rescued by the deal, which is accepted by the board of Bear Stearns on Sunday morning. Wrangles with JP Morgan over a contract situation which potentially leaves the bank liable for funding Bear Stearns without claiming full ownership result in brinkmanship from Bear Sterns. A final price of $10 per share is agreed, with a value of $1. 45bn attached to the equity. March 25 Bear Stearns chief executive Jimmy Cayne and his wife sell 5. 66 million shares in the bank for $61. 34m, which, according to Cohan, represented a $1bn loss on the bank’s stock. May 29 The final Bear Stearns shareholder meeting takes place, at which former CEO Cayne speaks of his sadness at the firm’s demise, according to The Wall Street Journal, citing guests present.

School trip to the forest

School trip to the forest Introduction I was six years old when we had a school trip to the forest in order to explore the local fauna and flora. When we walked through the forest I started noticing little white circles that were sprayed onto the bark of some old and sick looking trees. One week later, I found myself at a bus stop with my mum. Waiting for the bus was always very boring for me and therefore, I usually started interpreting the advertisement posters with my newly acquired reading abilities. One poster caught my attention immediately. This very poster had a baroque cross on it and it said something in a language which I did not understand. My mum explained me that day, that this was a poster of Scientology. On the bus we had a long conversation about sects and what they do and what they are. I assume that I was a bit too young to understand the whole dimension of the term sect but since that day, for many years, I was convinced that the white circles in the forest must have been some secret mean of communicat ion and that some sect would meet there every now and then to do some of their practices. Looking back at this now, I surely notice that the white circles were simply a mark for probably old or sick trees that needed special attention from the forester. However, being six years old I was sure that I discovered something extremely secret and hidden. In February 1748, Adam Weishaupt was born in Ingolstadt. Through his father and godfather he was taught the ideas of the enlightenment. Furthermore, he was a professor at the University of Ingolstadt for canon law and philosophy. The enlightened thinker Weishaupt struggled with the old and conservative Jesuit order at the university. He started studying the writings of the freemasons and in 1776 he founded the Bavarian Illuminati, an order which was intended to spread the ideas of the enlightenment. In January 1933, the Austrian-born Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of the German people. One year later, due to the death of President Paul von Hindenburg, Hitler was proclaimed ‘Fà ¼hrer and Reichskanzler which made him the head of state. From this extremely powerful position Hitler started his crusade against Jews, communists, foreigners and other ‘enemies of the German Reich. In April 1994, the lead singer of the grunge and rock band Nirvana, Kurt Cobain, was found dead in his home in Seattle. With three times the lethal amount of heroin in his body, the musician took a shotgun, put it into his mouth and shot himself. In September 2001, terrorists hijacked commercial passenger air planes. Two of these planes were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Centre in New York City. Apart from the hijackers and the plane passengers also many people working in the towers were killed. Within, two hours both of the buildings collapsed and Ground Zero was erected as a memorial for the victims. All of these events and people are connected through the fact that there are conspiracy theories evolving around them. The illuminati are still often referred to as being the driving force behind global events and there is the popular theory among conspiracy believers â€Å"that the new nation was about to be taken over by the Bavarian Illuminati†. Adolf Hitler developed probably one of the most influential conspiracies which blamed the Jews for the loss of the First World War and the misfortune of the people in Germany. The death of Kurt Cobain and inconsistencies in the crime scene investigation caused the quite well known murder theory of his death. Lastly, the events of September 11th 2001 are probably most discussed in conspiracy theories. Several theories exist in which it is assumed that the US government actually initiated the attacks. Other theories claim, that despite the thousands of eye witnesses there were no planes what so ever. Whereas even other theories argue that shortly before the attacks happened a UFO could be seen and that these attacks were caused by aliens. Conspiracy beliefs have guided the human kind through many centuries of history. When considering the freemasons and the illuminati it becomes visible that conspiracy theories are by no means a contemporary phenomenon. Especially strong superstitious beliefs in the past gave rise to some influential conspiracy theories which led to the prosecution of witches and heretics, for instance. Despite the fact that conspiracy beliefs are rooted in the past, many sources speak of an increase in conspiracy beliefs especially among the population. Michael Barkun, professor at the Syracuse University in the state of New York and author of the book â€Å"A Culture of Conspiracy†, termed the belief in conspiracy theories as an â€Å"emerging cultural phenomenon†. Also the researcher for folklore studies at the Oregon University, Daniel Wojcik, claims: â€Å"Ideas and images about the end of the world permeate American popular culture and folklore, as well as popular religion, and ar e expressed in films, literature, music, poetry, [†¦], and commercial products†. The fact that conspiracy theories seem to gain more hold within the people seems intriguing and should be investigated. Therefore, the thesis for this paper will be: Despite the claim of insanity, conspiracy theories have become an important part of our contemporary thinking and due to popular culture, especially the mass media, they seem to be taken more and more seriously in our contemporary society. One of the main sources for this essay will be the book â€Å"A Culture of Conspiracy† by Michael Barkun, which offers a great approach to the dynamics of conspiracy theories. Furthermore, this essay will discuss the nature, types and functions of conspiracy beliefs and the role of the mass media in the spread of those. Lastly, this paper will analyze if there was actually an increase in people believing in conspiracy theories. The Nature Of Conspiracy Theories The New World Order, millennialism, area 51, black helicopters, UFO sightings – those are terms usually associated with conspiracy theories. But what exactly are conspiracy theories? What functions do they fulfill for the people who believe in them? Is it possible to speak of â€Å"factual† conspiracy theories? These are questions that will be approached in this essay. First of all, a formal definition of the term is needed: â€Å"A conspiracy theory is a belief that a group of people are secretly trying to harm someone or to achieve something. Usually this term is used to suggest something unlikely or even paranoid†. This definition mentions important criteria of conspiracy beliefs. One of the most important is that something is happening in secret. Due to this secrecy the conspiracy believers are convinced that they are the only ones who know the truth and that they need to spread the word to the unknowing population. Another aspect of conspiracy theories is that they connote a degree of paranoia. When speaking of a conspiracy or of someone who believes in conspiratorial theories, we usually incline that this person is mad or paranoid. A good example for this can be found in Friedrich Nietzsches ‘The Gay Science. In section 125, a madman runs around exclaiming the often quoted statement: â€Å"God is dead†. This exclamation can be interpreted as a conspiracy theory which the madman is attempting to spread. However, the viewers of this scene see merely an insane person: â€Å"Here the madman fell silent and looked again at his listeners; they too were silent and looked at him disconcertedly†. The madman and his beliefs are not taken seriously. Moreover, a very problematic criterion of conspiracy theories is the fact that they are non-falsifiable. Conspiracy theories are usually termed this way because they lack evidence or logical explanations compared to the official theory. It is most of the times impossible for believers to prove their theory. However, conspiracy believers are convinced that â€Å"information that appears to put a conspiracy theory in doubt must have been planted by the conspirators themselves in order to mislead†. This means that even information or evidence against the conspiracy is seen as a proof in favor of the theory because it must have been brought up by people who try to cover the conspiracy. Therefore, no matter what kind of evidence it will always speak in favor of a conspiracy theory. Types Of Conspiracies Barkun differentiates between three types of conspiracies: event conspiracies, systemic conspiracies and superconspiracies. In an event conspiracy, the conspirators are believed to be responsible for only a limited, discrete event. Systematic conspiracies are characterized by broader goals, such as gaining power over a country, a certain region or even the world. However, only a single group of people or a single organization are believed to take part in this. In a superconspiracy multiple conspiracy theories are linked to more conspiracy theories and global events. Superconspiracies are characterized by the belief that everything is connected. This paper will mainly deal with the identified event conspiracies. Although Barkuns book â€Å"A Culture of Conspiracy† displays an excellent theoretical approach to conspiracy theories it seems slightly narrow when it comes to different kinds and beliefs of conspiracy theories. Barkun generalizes conspiracy theories and theorists as believers in UFOs, alien intervention in global events and the New World Order. However, he does not discuss the possibility that there might be people, who do not believe in supernatural interventions in earthly happenings but who still believe in alternative explanations for national and international events that deviate from the official explanation. For this reason, two different categories have to be integrated into the types of conspiracy theories. This paper will differentiate between supernatural and factual theories. Supernatural conspiracy theories include, among others, beliefs in aliens, UFOs, the New World Order and millennialism. They are irrational and non-falsifiable as nothing supernatural was ever able to be empirically proved and verified. Most certainly, these theories are the reason why the term ‘conspiracy theory has a paranoid or even insane connotation. Furthermore, theories about the freemasons and the illuminati will be included into this category. The main focus of this paper will be the so-called factual theories. Factual conspiracy theories incline the secret involvement of an earthly group, organization or even state in global events and affairs. The murder theory of Kurt Cobains death as well as the theory of US state involvement in the 9/11 attacks constitute examples for this kind. However implausible these theories may sound, they do have a slightly more rational nature. They deal with an issue that could be verified or falsified with access to the right information. Nevertheless, this information is usually impossible to attain which also gives these conspiracy theories a non-falsifiable nature. So eventually, it still comes down to belief or disbelief. However, it is important to mention that these factual theories reduce the paranoid connotation of the term ‘conspiracy theory. The Case Of Anna Politkovskaya The events surrounding the death of the Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya is now used to explain the plausibility of factual conspiracy theories. On October 7th 2006 Politkovskaya was shot four times in the elevator of her apartment. Politkovskaya dedicated her life to the conflicts in Chechnya caused by the Russian domination. After the Russian troops brutally crashed down the separatist revolts in Chechnya after the first and second Chechen War the Russians reestablished their hegemony. However, the separatist cry for independence still finds proponents among the Chechen population. The Russian government is accused of using torture and other violent means to suppress these movements. This conflict has caused human rights activists such as Politkovskaya to investigate into and demonstrate against the Russian practices in Chechnya. Along with these demonstrations activists and demonstrators were held in custody without a legal basis. The events in Russia and Chechnya have caught the attention of many human rights organizations. In 2007, the human rights watch proclaimed: â€Å"Russia has ignored a series of judgments by the European Court of Human Rights on Chechnya, fueling unchecked violence in the North Caucasus. Following the recent murders of human rights defenders there, the Council of Europes Parliamentary Assembly will decide on September 28, 2009 whether to schedule a debate to focus on the dangerous conditions for human rights defenders in the North Caucasus†. Politkovskaya was only one journalist and Kremlin critic that was murdered in a series of killings. However, Politkovskayas case has drawn global attention to the events in Russia and to the declining freedom of speech: â€Å"Her killing underlined the shrinking freedom allowed dissenters in Russian society, provoked international outrage and cast a shadow over Vladimir V. Putins Russia†. Not only the actual murder of Politkovskaya are a doubtful subject but also her trial was perceived as flawed and manipulated from western media. All of the four convicts were cleared of their charges and evidence such as a video of the assassination as well as photos and a sim card completely disappeared from the trial scene. The newspaper which Anna Politkovskaya was working for, Novaya Gazeta, suggested that the â€Å"conspiracy was planned at a much higher level†. In the case of Politkovskaya the Russian state as well as the Russia-oriented Chechen government disclaimed any involvement in the murders of any of the journalists and human rights activists. This claim can be seen as the official explanations of the journalist killings in Russia. Therefore, the theory that there is state involvement to some degree can be seen as a conspiracy theory. However, especially in the western part of the world it seems as if the state-involvement-theory around Politkovskayas death seems to find more and more acceptance. Due to unlawful arrests of demonstrators, several killings of other human rights journalists as well as the disappearing evidence from Politkovskayas trial it becomes more and more plausible that there is some kind of higher state involvement. In this sense, the events and conspiracy surrounding the death of Anna Politkovskaya can be seen as a factual conspiracy theory which has started to gain more and more proof as well as proponents all o ver the world. The Functions Of Conspiracy Beliefs Why do some people believe that Anna Politkovskaya was shot on order of the Kremlin whereas others do not? How come some people find it plausible that the US government initiated the attacks on the World Trade Centre whereas others think this extremely far-fetched? Conspiracy theories fulfill certain functions in the minds of the people and in the population as a whole. They can show a certain distrust of the people in what is official presented to them. Furthermore, they constitute another kind of choice that we have in a consumer society. Moreover, they can be seen as a new form of scapegoating. The following sections will analyze why people believe in conspiracy theories and what other options those theories offer to them. Conspiracy Theories As A Sign Of Distrust Conspiracy theories can be seen as a general sign of dissatisfaction and distrust that people have with the government, society and the system in general. Jodi Dean, professor for political science at the Hobart and William Smith College in the state of New York, stated: â€Å"[†¦] conspiracy theories, far from a label dismissively attached to the lunatic fringe, may well be an appropriate vehicle for political contestation†. Probably every country experiences every now and then affairs of corruption among politicians or within larger and well-known companies. Furthermore, everyone is familiar with parties or politicians who do not stick to their election promises. Those experiences fuel the feelings of distrust and skepticism. Many people show strong doubts of the trustworthiness of information that they get about the acts and deeds of the governments. Barkun points out: â€Å"[†¦] where political matters are concerned, there is no longer a consensus reality about the causes of events and reliability of evidence†. Furthermore, in our globalised world everything gets more interlinked. Big companies as resources for employment, gain more and more power in the political landscape of the countries. Moreover, the media coverage of events increases which makes it easier for people to hear about events all over the world. It can be argued that the increased media coverage leads to a rise in the imagination of people of what could happen or what could be going on. This development can lead to the described distrust into the governments and to the fact that conspiracy theories seem plausible to the people. However, this does not mean that people completely discard the official explanations. It merely inclines that people believe that the alternative explanations provided by the conspiracy theories seem imaginable. Conspiracy Theories And The Paradigm Of Choice In 2004, the American psychologist Barry Schwartz published the book â€Å"The Paradox of Choice – Why More Is Less†. In this book he argues that we have reached the height of a consumer society in which it might happen that choice â€Å"no longer liberates, but deliberates†. Schwartz describes the various areas of life in which we can choose these days, such as education, career, friendship and religion. On top of the field of religion one can place the general category of belief. In our society, people can choose what to believe in and what they find believable. Whereas some people believe that the earth and the species were created by god, others find this completely incredible and support Darwins theory of evolution. Choice is a crucial aspect of our lives. Schwartz points out that: â€Å"Choice is essential to autonomy, which is absolutely fundamental to well-being†. Although, not directly implied by Schwartz book, it can be argued that conspiracy theories constitute another choice that we have in our society, namely a choice of truth. The issue of belief and what we believe in is vital to human choice. Schwartz explains that: â€Å"[†¦] we make the most of our freedoms by learning to make good choices about the things that matter, while at the same time unburdening ourselves from too much concern about things that dont†. Continuing in this line of thought, beliefs are essential to a persons existence and personality: â€Å"Existence, at least human existence, is defined by the choices people make†. In order to choose we need to be able to believe and we need to be able to assume that our choice will bring about a desired outcome. When choosing our beliefs we have a choice between religions, political parties, movements of any kind and many more. However, the term belief also inclines that we have a belief in what is going on and how things work. When it comes to our own lives this is quite manageable and even if we feel that we do not know how we work we can go to a specialist who will clarify this for us. Nevertheless, when it comes to a more general truth, something that we cannot check or see for ourselves we need to rely on sources telling us the truth and making us believe. The field of ‘truth however, seemed to be ruled by the monopoly of official explanations. Obviously alien involvements, for instance, in several earthly events often served as useful alternative theories for believers in superconspiracies but there was no real choice for people who did not believe in supernatural happenings. As outlined before, it is important for people to on the one hand have choices and on the other hand to b e able to make choices about things that matter. Due to this, conspiracy theories offer a choice in truth to people or as Schwartz would put it: â€Å"Individual customers are free to ‘purchase whatever bundles of knowledge they want, [†¦]†. A New Form Of Scapegoating Explanations to negative events usually involve something or someone being blamed for having caused a negative outcome. It is a very common psychological phenomenon that in order to handle difficult, sad or even traumatic events people need someone on whom they can produce their anger, fear, frustration, sadness etc. Scapegoating is a special form of blaming in which â€Å"[†¦] a hostile social-psychological discrediting routine by which people move blame and responsibility away from themselves and towards a target person or group† is performed. By blaming the terrorists of Al-Qaida for the 9/11 attacks the US government has found a scapegoat for the public. This does not mean however, that the US government invented a new scapegoat. They merely found a group of people that was called responsible for the attacks. Most definitions of scapegoating involve that the scapegoats feel they are wrongly accused or persecuted. As Al-Qaida did claim responsibility for the events the US government was right in proclaiming this. However, the scapegoating process started in the minds of the people. Through generalizing, a large amount of people started to belief that it is the Muslims as a whole who try to cause damage to the western world. Continuing on this line of thought, conspiracy theories have a similar effect. They are merely alternative explanations for events but also they include the element of blame. So instead of blaming Al-Qaida for the attacks on the World Trade Centre they blamed the US government and instead of only blaming the murderers of Politkovskaya they blame the Russian state. Therefore, it can be concluded that conspiracy theories fulfill the basic functions that official explanations accomplish. The only difference is that the target of their blame is usually dissimilar. However, some articles argue that conspiracist scapegoating has a much larger effects than other kinds of scapegoating: â€Å"When conspiracist scapegoating occurs, the results can devastate a society, disrupting rational political discourse and creating targets who are harassed and even murdered†. The analysis if scapegoats that evolved out of a conspiracy theory are more in danger than those that evolved out of official explanations for events would go beyond the scope of this paper. Nevertheless, the medieval witch hunts as well as Hitlers conspiracy against Jews, Communists and foreigners might argue in favor of the claim that scapegoats made by conspiracy theories are in higher danger. Conspiracy Theories And Play In 1938, the Dutch historian Johan Huizinga published his work â€Å"Homo Ludens† which contains an exceptionally influential theory on contemporary culture. Literally translated from the Latin, homo ludens means something like ‘Man the Player. In Homo Ludens, Huizinga determines the play elements of contemporary culture and claims that culture itself bears the character of a play. Huizingas theory was mainly formed by the approaching fascism and the threats that it brought with it. However, his theory is still extremely influential in cultural studies and is used in order to analyze numerous elements of contemporary culture. Also conspiracy theories can be applied to Huizingas theory. Huizingas general idea of the nature of this play goes as follows: â€Å"Summing up the formal characteristics of play we might call it a free activity standing quite consciously outside ‘ordinary life as being ‘not serious, but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly. It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. It promotes the formation of social groupings which tend to surround themselves with secrecy and to stress their difference from the common world by disguise or other means†. This very complex definition can be unravelled into five most important qualities of play. First of all, play is supposed to be a free activity which intentionally stands outside of ordinary life and which is not seen as being serious. In addition to this, it is important to mention that Huizinga differentiated between ordinary life and higher culture. Ordinary life includes the basics of living and is not seen as an element of play. Higher culture however, is what Huizinga refers to in his play theory. Conspiracy theories partly fulfil this criterion. Conspiracy theories are a belief and beliefs and the choice of those, as outlined before, are important elements of our society. Therefore it can be claimed that conspiracy beliefs are a part of higher culture. However, those who believe in conspiracy theories do take this subject very seriously whereas other people might ridicule those beliefs. A second and third criterion for play is that it must absorb the player intensely and utterly and no material gain or profit must be achieved by it. Conspiracy theories complete this criterion. As conspiracy theories can be viewed as beliefs or also as persuasions, they will fully and intensely take in a person. Furthermore, it can be argued that thorough persuasions or beliefs of a person are not connected to material gain or profit. However, it can surely be claimed that some people hold certain views in order to gain material profit. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that those views cannot be considered an accurate persuasion. Therefore, one can assume that people who thoroughly belief in certain conspiracy theories do so without expecting any material profit. The fourth criterion states that this kind of play has to take place in an arranged manner within certain boundaries of time and space. Contemporary conspiracy theories usually evolve around contemporary subjects and events. However, conspiracy theories see history as a plot. Everything is interlinked and connected. Due to this conspiracy theories repeatedly deal with past and maybe even future events. However, the order of past, present and future is usually not confused or changed. The last main criterion includes that play supports the creation and development of social groups which are supposed to act in secrecy and which should differentiate themselves from other groups and people. It is very obvious that this element can be found in conspiracy theories. People who believe in conspiracy theories usually form a group with other people who agree with their event explanation and they communicate with each other. Secrecy is one of the main criteria of conspiracy theories as they incline that an action or event took place in secrecy and is trying to be concealed. Lastly, many psychological theories on group formation claim that groups include but also exclude. People who believe in certain conspiracy theories are therefore included into the group, whereas people who disbelieve are excluded. In this sense, group formation is also a mean of differentiating oneself from another group of people. Therefore, in conclusion it can be said that conspiracy theories can be seen as a play element in our contemporary culture. Conspiracy Theories In Popular Culture So far, this paper has outlined the nature and different types of conspiracy theories as well as their functions in the minds of the people and in the population as a whole. In addition to that, conspiracy theories have become an important part of popular culture: â€Å"The volume and influence of stigmatized knowledge [conspiracy theories] have increased dramatically through the mediation of popular culture. Motifs, theories and truth claims that once existed in hermetically sealed subcultures have begun to be recycled, often with great rapidity, through popular culture†. The main force behind this popularization of conspiracy theories is usually seen in the role of the mass media. However, popular culture also has the function of demystifying conspiracy theories. A common criterion of conspiracy theories is the fact that the believers think they are the only ones who know about this secret plot. By broadcasting the theories to an enormous number of people they lose their sec recy: â€Å"Once hidden, they are now revealed. Once intended only for the knowing few, they are now placed before the ignorant many. Once mysterious, they can now appear banal, the building blocks of not particularly distinguished popular entertainment†. The Mass Media And The Spread Of Conspiracy Theories The most crucial force in the spread of conspiracy theories is the mass media. Alternative explanations for events can be read in literature, internet and newspaper articles, can be seen on television and in the cinema and can be heard on the radio. The mass media is our biggest and maybe even most influential source of information. Conspiracy theories have long made their entrance into popular culture and mass media. Also Barkun describes this development: â€Å"Now, however, the boundary between the stigmatized and the mainstream has clearly become more permeable. Themes that once might have been found only in outsider literature or on the more outrà © Web sites have become the stuff of network television and multimillion-dollar motion picture†. When it comes to television, Barkun especially refers to shows like ‘The X-Files which were extremely popular, not only in the United States. The main focus of this series was to unravel conspiracies planned by the governments and accompanied through the help of extraterrestrial life. Furthermore, Barkun refers to films such as the 1997 Mel Gibson movie ‘Conspiracy Theory. In this movie, a paranoid taxi driver is convinced that many global events are triggered due to a government conspiracy. Barkun points out: â€Å"The appearance of conspiracism in major motion pictures signals a major change in the relation between stigmatized and mainstream knowledge claims†. However, one does not need to look into special conspiratorial films or series to figure out that the topic of conspiracism has been widely adopted by the mass media. Many mainstream films such as ‘Mission Impossible or ‘Three Days of the Condor evolve around conspiracies planted by governments or intelligence agencies. Furthermore, intriguing but admittedly quite propagandistic documentaries such as Michael Moores ‘Fahrenheit 9/11 contribute to manifest conspiracy theories in the mainstream. Many of these mentioned motion pictures serve to stimulate the imagination of the public. As already outlined when analyzing the functions of conspiracy theories, the broad and wide-ranging media coverage of different global events also leads to the fact that different views on events are accumulated. Furthermore, the media does not only show different views on events but also covers a wide range of events that happen all over the world. This together with conspiracy theories that can be found in mass media means of entertainment such as movies and TV programs leads to the increased imagination of people of what could possibly go on in their country or even in the world. Furthermore, it can be said that: â€Å"[†¦] the appearance of conspiracy themes in popular culture at least partially destigmatizes those ideas, by associating them with admired stars and propagating them through the most important forms of mass entertainment†. Considering this, it can be concluded that the media did not only spread popular conspiracy theories but moreover, did it de-condemn conspiracy theories to be only an issue to paranoid or lunatic people. By doing so the mass media made conspiracy theories which used to be considered as stigmatized knowledge available to a wide range of people. Barkun assigns another function to the mass media. Everyone has probably heard of the concept of surreptitious advertisement, when we see protagonists in a movie drinking a certain brand of cola or when they use a very popular new mobile phone